The effects of the EV battery production and recycling
The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) maintains a total energy cycle assessment (TECA) for electric vehicles (FDF). The aim is to prepare an energy and emissions inventory for EVS and compared with one for conventional vehicles. This comparison will help DOE EV Technology to evaluate and address any potential environmental problems. Work will be performed at Argonne National Laboratory, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory and the national renewable energy laboratory. The work described here is part EVTECA the study. A more detailed version of this document is available (1).
There was much about the performance of batteries for Electric vehicles written, but also information about the materials and their production and recycling processes are not readily available. Such processes are not the primary Interest focuses on the concepts and procedures are still in flux, and much of the information proprietary. However, studies providing information on health and environmental effects some data on battery materials and their handling. This paper summarizes available information on the materials in four species EV Batteries: Lead-acid Intermediate (Pb-acid), sodium-sulfur (Na-S), nickel-cadmium (Ni-Cd) and nickel-metal hydride (Ni-MH).
Some knowledge of battery materials apply to all four types to varying degrees. The batteries are a significant part of the vehicle mass (~ 20-40%). The impacts will be magnified because some of the laptop Battery life shorter than the vehicles are and must be replaced. Some thought that the battery recycling capacity in planning, because the EV is Born "green". In contrast to small consumer cells now (easily hacked), EV batteries will be large enough to justify dismantling and physical separation (manually or automatically) as first step in recycling. The work on methods for the recovery of some materials is at best incomplete.
Another finding relates to the materials, mingles advanced batteries. Active materials for all types except the advanced lead-acid – (automotive standard materials, even if some Cd was in coatings and pigments are used), for the process, little information is available at all times. However, a substantial portion of the battery mass is composed of housings, separators, and connections on the well-characterized materials such as steel and polypropylene, as uncertainty over the impact will be reduced from the batteries.
The production of the battery Materials emissions generated from the physical and chemical processes and combustion of fuels to drive these processes. Process emissions are different in material, but fuel combustion emissions are standard products of combustion, which we compared to those produced by the operation of the car over the life span.
Energy Production and Recycling
Table 1 shows some important characteristics for the four selected species, including rough production and recycling of energy estimates ) for a 25-kWh battery (adequate size for a small car. The data are incomplete, as technologies for recycling all the materials not yet developed. If the material composition and production data for several types of batteries are not readily available, we have rough approximations to determine important contributions to the energy consumption for material production. Materials in very small quantities, or with very low production of energy have been adopted, not recycled can be. Despite these shortcomings, we can see some interesting observations.
The complete data for advanced lead-acid batteries available. If the battery would go from all the extraction of raw materials, 76% of energy from Pb, the production and the rest of the polypropylene case. The energy of the battery for a mini-compact car production of new materials is about 17% of that required to produce the rest of the car. However, lowering the cost of production from recycled materials, the required Energy by more than a factor of four, and Pb and battery cases have already been recycled to a large extent. Would produce energy at a 80% recycled batteries will be less than 7% of production vehicle energy. That one or more replacement batteries would multiply this contribution, but even if compensation was required, this could be the least energy-intensive To generate battery. This does not take into account requires additional vehicle mass to support a heavier battery or extra energy to transport it of life of the vehicle.
Although few data are available for the Na-S battery, some conclusions are possible. The quantities of electrode material in this Battery are relatively small, and sulfur production consumes little energy. The energy in the production of this type of battery is through the production of the ceramic electrolyte, Use dominated steel cell cases, and thermal plant. Recycling these items would provide some energy saving measures, but to save re-use Substantially all of the production
Energy. No method is identified for the recycling of the electrolyte, which would not be reusable. The cell probable cases not reusable, because of corrosion and degradation, because she could not leave intact, but recycling is possible. The thermal plant would probably re – will. The energy density of this battery type is the highest of the included in this study. It is therefore less per pound of battery weight of the vehicle is required and the relative Contribution of the manufacture of batteries for the entire vehicle production energy is reduced.
Since the Ni-Cd battery used energy-saving material, it has a high energy (about four times as large as the extended lead-acid battery). More than 80% of the energy used to produce the electrode material. But that is in the assignment of energy intensity of Zn Cd, Zn a byproduct of the basis may be inappropriate. The next largest contribution comes from the stainless steel battery case with lighter plastics replaced in some designs. Since this type of battery has a relatively low energy density, the mass of the battery material per unit vehicle mass is high, so it is important from an energy standpoint, to to recycle the materials. Nickel recycling is possible, but no estimate of energy is available. Cadmium recycling is currently feasible and not very energy-intensive, because Cd volatilizes at relatively low temperatures. Recycling of Cd alone could save about one third of the battery production energy. Require the Ni-Cd battery would be more than 90% as much energy as if the rest of a compact vehicle, so is the recycling of energy imports for reasons essential to produce. Potential health effects Dangers of Cd release are other strong riders to maintain a closed cycle.
The data for Ni-MH battery materials are hard to come by, but some conclusions are possible. The Ni electrode is similar to the Ni-Cd battery, ie it is energy-intensive but can be recycled. Recycling of metal hydrides is still in the stage of Research can be said very little, except that progress be made. The plastic separator material is recyclable, and improves the energy picture. During this type of battery is relatively high energy (about 75% of energy-intensive than Ni-Cd on the same base mass), is the energy density significantly higher than that of Ni-Cd. Therefore the overall proportion of the Ni-MH battery energy for the production of a total vehicle energy only about 60% that of the Ni-Cd. For a small car is Ni-MH battery production of energy for about 45% of the the rest of the vehicle. A slight case would consume less energy. Recycling of electrode materials may also reduce the energy requirements.
This preliminary analysis allows us to additional expense for the collection of data on the materials, which contribute significantly to the production of batteries, energy, focus needs and used for the elderly or approximate data. Examples include electrode materials for Ni-Cd and Ni-MH batteries. The analysis also shows, however, these materials as important targets for recycling research to the energy required to reduce the batteries, and called for replacing the batteries represent a large energy penalty would. It also places where recycling is not significantly reduce the energy consumption, then reuse or perhaps an easier exchange of design or a less Energy-intensive material is displayed.
Finally, energy consumption for manufacture of batteries need to advancements in perspective of the entire lifecycle of the vehicle will. Over a lifetime of 100,000 miles, a 0.25-kWh/mi EV electricity that would be needed to generate 260 million Btu (assuming use 10,500 Btu / kWh). One would be similar, small conventional vehicle (CV) to get 35 mpg on reformulated gasoline consumed about 320 million Btu of fuel. Thus,
although most energy battery design was used and not recycled manufacturing consumes energy less than 15% of the life of the vehicle fuel consumption.
PROCESS EMISSIONS
As with many other metals, Pb of primary sulfide ores by sintering, blast furnace-produced reduction and refining. The primary effluent, SO2, is recovered and used to produce sulfuric acid. Missouri accounts for 75% of the primary Pb production in the United States. Cadmium, in Colorado, Illinois, Oklahoma, produced and Tennessee, is from zinc sulfide ores. It is unclear how much should be attributed to the emissions, on CD. Nickel is a sulfide ore. The U.S. Bureau of Mines Estimated 8 tons of sulfur per ton of Ni (3) produced. Note that SO2 emissions from the primary electrode for Ni occur in which the material is melted, overseas. In Canada, Inco has achieved compliance with the emission regulations, with great effort.
Lead compounds such as oxides are released, as during the primary particles and secondary (recycled) Pb smelting operations and during the manufacture and recycling of batteries. Control systems are required in the United States. Secondary smelting and Battery recycling, more geographically distributed than primary production, can occur in the vicinity of urban centers. Currently,> 90% of Pb and oxides of batteries recycled or exported will. When scrap is exported to Asia, metallurgical operations with less stringent (or no) pollution-control regulations could confer an economic advantage have, however, cause severe local impacts on health.
About 63% of elemental sulfur consumed domestically as a byproduct of the processing of petroleum and natural gas in the U.S. Gulf Coast focus, the rest will be mined or imported. Sulfur recovery unit has a positive impact on air quality, because otherwise the material will contribute to emissions.
Particles, including iron oxides, sulfur oxides, carbon-containing compounds and chlorine, are emitted at several stages of the primary and secondary iron and steel production. These materials can be captured in hoods or other systems and to a fabric filter or in some operations, suppressed. Primary production is in a band from Pennsylvania, Illinois, concentrating in the vicinity of several major metropolitan areas. Secondary production is widespread, with mini-mills in the country.
COMBUSTION EMISSIONS IN SIGHT
Although the fuel mix is different in the material production will be on the program mix emissions from combustion during the manufacture of batteries much less important than those from electricity generation. The ecological advantage is to be advertised in EVS their air pollution . benefit To replace utility emissions CV gasoline emissions. The utility can be issues in terms of lower totals than those of gasoline vehicles, or in terms of exposure the population because the power plants operate outside the major metropolitan areas. The effect on power plant emissions, the use of EVS analyzed in four cities was. The areas vary by utility and fuel mix) other variables (eg climate. Both low and high EV market penetration scenarios were evaluated. The utility analysis investigated different scenarios for the collection, EV market penetration, shipping and engineering.
Using the EVS could always expected it to be a rise in the air carry pollutants from utilities through a base with no EVs, but the effect is to reduce the bid due to the EV demand in some cases to utility emissions compared to the non-EV basis. This result deserves some explanation. In the utility analysis, if the capacity is added, the power plant is the economic size, and required not only for the provision of additional capacity of the EVS. Added units are cheaper and cleaner than many other units, such as may result new units to replace "dirty" and more expensive equipment in the dispatch of the order to the total emissions were reduced as compared to the base. So, in some Emissions are marginal cases, negative.
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